Changes in pre-pregnancy weight and weight gain during pregnancy: retrospective comparison between 1986 and 2004

QUESTIONS UNDER STUDY: To compare the incidence of pre-pregnancy overweight, obesity, and difference in weight gain during pregnancy in the years 1986 and 2004, in women delivered at the maternity unit of our hospital. METHODS: Retrospective study. Maternity records of patients delivered in the years 1986 and 2004 were compared. Data extraction included booking weight, height, weight gain, birth weight as well as information on mode of delivery and gestational age at delivery. RESULTS: During the year 1986 and 2004 a total of 690 and 668 patients respectively were included in the analysis. The pre-pregnancy BMI > or =25 doubled over the 18-year period (from 15.9 to 30.1%). In 1986 only 2.6% of all pregnant women gained more than 20 kg, while in 2004 14.2% (p <0.0001) did so. The caesarean section rate was significantly higher in 2004 than 18 years earlier (28.3 and 9.3%, p <0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: We found a significant increase in all parameters between these two groups. Pregnant women are today heavier at the booking visit, are more overweight, and gain more weight during pregnancy. A similar trend is seen in the newborn babies, who have a higher birth weight than those born 18 years ago.

Factor V Leiden as risk factor for pregnancy complications : Epidemiological study of Finnish women

Factor V Leiden (FV Leiden) is the most common inherited thrombophilia in Caucasians increasing the risk for venous thrombosis. Its prevalence in Finland is 2-3%. FV Leiden has also been associated with several pregnancy complications. However, the importance of FV Leiden as their risk factor is unclear. The aim of the study was to assess FV Leiden as a risk factor for pregnancy complications in which prothrombotic mechanisms may play a part. Specifically, the study aimed to assess the magnitude of the risk, if any, associated with FV Leiden for pregnancy-associated venous thrombosis, pre-eclampsia, unexplained stillbirth, and preterm birth. The study was conducted as a nested case-control study within a fixed cohort of 100,000 consecutive pregnant women in Finland. The study was approved by the ethics committee of the Finnish Red Cross Blood Service and by the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health. All participants gave written informed consent. Cases and controls were identified by using national registers. The diagnoses of the 100,000 women identified from the National Register of Blood Group and Blood Group Antibodies of Pregnant Women were obtained from the National Hospital Discharge Register. Participants gave blood samples for DNA tests and filled in questionnaires. The medical records of the participants were reviewed in 49 maternity hospitals in Finland. Genotyping was performed in the Finnish Genome Center. When evaluating pregnancy-associated venous thrombosis (34 cases, 641 controls), FV Leiden was associated with 11-fold risk (OR 11.6, 95% CI 3.6-33.6). When only analyzing women with first venous thrombosis, the risk was 6-fold (OR 5.8, 95% CI 1.6-21.8). The risk was increased by common risk factors, the risk being highest in women with FV Leiden and pre-pregnancy BMI over 30 kg/m2 (75-fold), and in women with FV Leiden and age over 35 years (60-fold). When evaluating pre-eclampsia (248 cases, 679 controls), FV Leiden was associated with a trend of increased risk (OR 1.7, 95% CI 0.8-3.9), but the association was not statistically significant. When evaluating unexplained stillbirth (44 cases, 776 controls), FV Leiden was associated with over 3-fold risk (OR 3.8, 95% CI 1.2-11.6). When evaluating preterm birth (324 cases, 752 controls), FV Leiden was associated with over 2-fold risk (OR 2.4, 95% CI 1.3-4.6). FV Leiden was especially associated with late preterm birth (32-36 weeks of gestation), but not with early preterm birth (< 32 weeks of gestation). The results of this large population-based study can be generalized to Finnish women with pregnancies continuing beyond first trimester, and may be applied to Caucasian women in populations with similar prevalence of FV Leiden and high standard prenatal care.

An exploration of knowledge and attitudes related to pre-pregnancy care in women with diabetes

Aims: Pre-pregnancy care optimizes pregnancy outcome in women with pre-gestational diabetes, yet most women enter pregnancy unprepared. We sought to determine knowledge and attitudes of women with Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes of childbearing age towards pre-pregnancy care.

Methods: Twenty-four women (18 with Type 1 diabetes and six with Type 2 diabetes) aged 17–40 years took part in one of four focus group sessions: young nulliparous women with Type 1 diabetes (Group A), older nulliparous women with Type 1 diabetes (Group B), parous women with Type 1 diabetes (Group C) and women with Type 2 diabetes of mixed parity (Group D).

Results: Content analysis of transcribed focus groups revealed that, while women were well informed about the need to plan pregnancy, awareness of the rationale for planning was only evident in parous women or those who had actively sought pre-pregnancy advice. Within each group, there was uncertainty about what pre-pregnancy advice entailed. Despite many women reporting positive healthcare experiences, frequently cited barriers to discussing issues around family planning included unsupportive staff, busy clinics and perceived social stereotypes held by health professionals.

Conclusions: Knowledge and attitudes reported in this study highlight the need for women with diabetes, regardless of age, marital status or type of diabetes, to receive guidance about planning pregnancy in a motivating, positive and supportive manner. The important patient viewpoints expressed in this study may help health professionals determine how best to encourage women to avail of pre-pregnancy care

Development of a continuing professional development website to raise awareness of preconception counselling and pre-pregnancy care for Women with Diabetes

Aims: Pre-pregnancy care reduces the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes in women with diabetes, yet the majority of women receive suboptimal care due to poor preconception counselling rates and a lack of awareness about the importance of specialised pre-pregnancy care. The primary aim was to develop a continuing professional development (CPD) resource for healthcare professionals (HCPs) who work with women with diabetes to facilitate preconception counselling with this group.

Methods: The website was developed under the direction of a multidisciplinary team, adhering to NICE guidelines. The tone, key messages and format are informed by the “Women with Diabetes” preconception counselling website, www.womenwithdiabetes.net, an existing resource which is effective in helping women to be better prepared for pregnancy.Results: This e-learning resource will give HCPs the necessary knowledge and tools to prepare women with diabetes to plan for pregnancy. The website features women with diabetes sharing their views and experiences, alongside an evidence-based commentary and key messages from research papers and clinical guidelines. It comprises two modules: “Planning for Pregnancy”, focusing on contraception, risks and planning; and “Diabetes and Pregnancy”, focusing on support during pregnancy with an overview of each trimester of pregnancy.

Conclusion: This website will be a useful CPD resource for all HCPs working with women with diabetes, providing a certificate on completion. This resource will empower HCPs to engage in preconception counselling with women with diabetes by providing the HCP with a greater understanding of the specific needs of women with diabetes both preconception and during pregnancy.

Pre-pregnancy obesity on the border and pregnancy complications: A secondary analysis comparing post-natal adult women in Matamoros, Mexico and Cameron County, Texas

Obesity during pregnancy is a serious health concern which has been associated with many adverse health outcomes for both the mother and the infant. In addition, data on the prevalence of obesity and its effects on pregnant women living in the border region are limited. This goal of this study was to examine the prevalence of preconception obesity among women living on each side of the Brownsville-Matamoros border who have just given birth, the relationship between obesity and pregnancy complications for the total population, and these associations by location. Study participants were drawn from a sample (n=947) from the Brownsville-Matamoros Sister City Project which included women from 10 border region hospitals (6 in Matamoros, 4 in Cameron County) who were recruited based on hospital log records indicating they had given birth to a live infant. De-identified data from verbal questionnaires administered within twenty-four hours after birth were analyzed to determine prevalence of preconception obesity on both sides of the border, and associated pregnancy outcomes for women residing in the United States and those in Mexico. Participants with missing height or weight data were excluded from analyses in this study, resulting in a final sample of 727 women. Significant associations were found between pre-pregnancy obesity and adverse pregnancy outcomes (OR=1.85, CI=1.30–2.64), hypertensive conditions (OR=2.76, CI=1.72–4.43), and macrosomia (OR=6.77, CI=1.13–40.57) using the total sample. Comparisons between the United States and Mexico sides of the border showed differences; associations between preconception obesity and adverse pregnancy outcomes were marginally significant among women in the United States (p=0.05), but failed to reach significance within this group for each individual complication. However, significant associations were found between obesity and preeclampsia (OR=3.61, CI=2.14–6.10), as well as obesity and the presence of one or more adverse pregnancy outcome (OR=2.29, CI=1.30–4.02), among women in Mexico. The results from this analysis provide new information specific to women on the Texas and Mexico border, a region that had not previously been studied. These significant associations between preconception obesity and adverse birth outcomes indicate that efforts to prevent obesity should focus on women of childbearing age, especially in Mexico.^

Índice de massa corporal e ganho ponderal gestacional como fator determinante do peso ao nascer do recém-nascido

RESUMO - Introdução: A literatura aponta que a gravidez é um período do ciclo reprodutivo associado com o excesso de peso, que se tem tornado um problema de saúde pública em ascensão. Na verdade, evidências sugerem que o excessivo peso pré-gestacional e o ganho ponderal excessivo estão associados a um peso elevado do RN. Objetivos: Relacionar o IMC antes da conceção e o ganho ponderal durante a gestação com o PN do RN. Métodos: Foi realizado um estudo epidemiológico, analítico, observacional e transversal, com uma amostra de cento e três mães e respetivos RNs, de termo, saudáveis e de gravidez única, da Unidade de Obstetrícia do Hospital Beatriz Ângelo. Estas foram recrutadas entre novembro de 2012 e março de 2013 inclusive. Para tal, foram recolhidos dados clínicos e outras informações relativas à gravidez e parto, nomeadamente o PN, através do sistema informático. Resultados: Após a análise dos resultados, constatou-se que mães com IMC superior a 25 antes da gravidez apresentam ganho ponderal durante a gravidez acima dos valores recomendados (47,2%). A prevalência de macrossomia e baixo peso ao nascer também foi maior em mães com excesso de peso (p=0,021), tal como de PIG e GIG (p=0,004). Observando a influência do ganho ponderal verificou-se que 9,5% (n=4) das mães com ganho ponderal excessivo tiveram RN com elevado peso ao nascer, enquanto 14,3% (n=4) das mães com ganho ponderal abaixo do recomendado tiveram RN com baixo peso ao nascer (p=0,018). Verificou-se também que o tempo de gestação é maior em mães com ganho ponderal acima do recomendado (p=0,024), e que este fator está positivamente associado com o PN (r=0,218; p=0,029), comprimento (r=0,221; p=0,027) e PC (r=0,249; p=0,012) do RN. No que se refere às correlações, encontrou-se uma correlação positiva moderada entre os fatores maternos (peso antes de engravidar; IMC pré-gestacional; e ganho ponderal) e o PN. Discussão/Conclusão: Desta forma, podemos concluir que tanto o excesso de peso pré-gestacional como o ganho de peso inadequado durante a gestação têm implicações diretas no peso do recém-nascido, nomeadamente aumentando o risco de macrossomia fetal.

L'endostatine et autres marqueurs angiogéniques de la prééclampsie

OBJECTIF: Évaluer le rôle de l’endostatine, un nouveau marqueur anti-angiogénique, pour prédire le risque de prééclampsie (PE). METHODES: Il s’agit d’une étude cas témoins nichée dans deux cohortes prospectives. Les échantillons sanguins étaient collectés entre 11 et 17 semaines puis entre 18 et 26 semaines d’aménorrhée. L’hypertension gestationnelle était définie par une tension artérielle supérieure ou égale à 140/90mmHg à 2 reprises. Les cas de prééclampsie étaient définis par une hypertension gestationnelle associée à une protéinurie supérieure ou égale à 0.3 g /24h après 20 semaines de grossesse. La concentration d’endostatine était mesurée par une technique d’ELISA. Les résultats étaient exprimés en multiples de la médiane (MoM) et ajustés pour l’âge maternel, l’âge gestationnel, l’ethnie, et la cohorte d’origine. Une régression logistique était utilisée pour calculer des odds ratios (OR) ajustés et prédire le risque de PE. RESULTATS: Au total nous avons étudié 77 PE et 150 témoins chez des grossesses uniques. Parmi les PE 21 étaient de survenue précoce, avec un diagnostic avant 34 semaines et 41 étaient des PE sévères. Les cas avaient un IMC plus élevé que les témoins et étaient plus souvent Africaines. Les taux médians d’endostatine étaient significativement plus élevés chez les PE que chez les témoins au 1er trimestre (94.2 versus 90.7 ng/ml, p=0.004) et 2ème trimestre (105.8 versus 99.3 ng/ml p=0.002). Le taux d’endostatine entre 18 et 26 semaines était même plus élevé chez les patientes qui développaient une PE précoce. Lorsque l’endostatine était supérieure au 75èmepercentile (exprimée en MoM), le OR ajusté était de 1.33 95IC [0.68-2.58] à 11-17 semaines et 1.77 [0.94-3.34] à 18-26 semaines. L’OR ajusté pour les PE précoces était 3.51 [1.18-10.43] entre 11-17 semaines et 2.17 [0.67-7.06] entre 18-26 semaines. CONCLUSIONS: Un taux élevé d’endostatine dès le 1er trimestre est associé à une augmentation du risque de PE et surtout d’un risque de prééclampsie précoce. Toutefois l’endostatine seule a une trop faible valeur prédictive pour avoir une utilité clinique.

Factores de riesgo perinatales para sobrepeso y obesidad en escolares en una población bogotana

Objetivo: Evaluar el impacto de los factores maternos y perinatales: peso previo al embarazo, presencia de hipertensión, diabetes y tabaquismo, peso al nacer y tiempo de lactancia con el desarrollo de sobrepeso y obesidad en los niños de 5 a 10 años en una población bogotana. Materiales y métodos: se realizó un diseño de casos y controles no pareado, incluyendo 528 niños con sus respectivas madres con una relación 1:2, en quienes se identificaron los descritos, y también factores postnatales relevantes: dieta, ejercicio y tiempo de pantalla. Se analizó con un modelo de regresión logística binomial la importancia de cada uno para la patología Resultados:Se encontró una mayor prevalencia de casos en los estratos 1 y 2 comparados con los demás estratos (p= 0,034). También se encontraron diferencias en la prevalencia de sobrepeso y obesidad en las madres de los casos (27%; p =0,01), mayor ingesta calórica en el grupo de los controles (42,9% vs 30,9%; p= 0,04). En el modelo de regresión logística se encontró que los factores que en conjunto mostraron significancia estadística fueron, un peso al nacer mayor de 2500 gr OR 2,31(IC 95%:1,13-4,78 p=0,021), un IMC materno antes de la gestación > de 25 OR 3,42(IC 95%:1,42-8,29 p=0,06), peso al año mayor de 7,5 kg OR 2,77 (IC 95%:1,11-2,78 p=0,028) y una ingesta calórica entre 600 a 1900 calorías/día OR 1.58 (IC 95%:1,06-2,35 p=0,02).Conclusiones: son factores de riesgo para el desarrollo de la obesidad infantil, la progresión hacia un percentil superior en peso, antes el embarazo, nacimiento y primer año de vida.

Testing the feasibility of a mobile technology intervention promoting healthy gestational weight gain in pregnant women (txt4two) - study protocol for a randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Overweight, obesity and excess gestational weight gain (GWG) are associated with negative health outcomes for mother and child in pregnancy and across the life course. Interventions promoting GWG within guidelines report mixed results. Most are time and cost intensive, which limits scalability. Mobile technologies (mHealth) offer low cost, ready access and individually-tailored support. We aim to test the feasibility of an mHealth intervention promoting healthy nutrition, physical activity and GWG in women who begin pregnancy overweight or obese. METHODS/DESIGN: txt4two is a parallel randomised control trial pilot recruiting women with a singleton, live gestation between 10(+0) and 17(+6) weeks at the first hospital antenatal clinic visit. Inclusion criteria are pre-pregnancy BMI > 25 kg/m(2) and mobile phone ownership. One hundred consenting women will be randomised to intervention or control groups at a 1:1 ratio. All participants will receive standard antenatal care. In addition, the txt4two intervention will be delivered from baseline to 36 weeks gestation and consists of a tailored suite of theoretically-grounded, evidence-based intervention strategies focusing on healthy nutrition, physical activity and GWG. This includes: mobile phone interactive text messages promoting positive health behaviours, goal setting and self-monitoring; video messages; an information website; and a private moderated Facebook® chat forum. The primary outcome is the feasibility of the intervention. Secondary outcomes include GWG and participants' knowledge and behaviour regarding diet and physical activity during pregnancy. DISCUSSION: Findings will inform the development of larger-scale mHealth programmes to improve the delivery of healthy pregnancy nutrition, physical activity and GWG, that could be widely translated and disseminated. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry: ACTRNU111111544397 . Date of registration: 19 March 2014.

Psychosocial factors and excessive gestational weight gain: the effect of parity in an Australian cohort

OBJECTIVES: psychosocial variables can be protective or risk factors for excessive gestational weight gain (GWG). Parity has also been associated with GWG; however, its effect on psychosocial risk factors for GWG is yet to be determined. The aim of this study was to investigate if, and how, psychosocial factors vary in their impact on the GWG of primiparous and multiparous women. DESIGN/PARTICIPANTS: pregnant women were recruited in 2011 via study advertisements placed in hospitals, online, in parenting magazines, and at baby and children's markets, resulting in a sample of 256 women (113 primiparous, 143 multiparous). Participants completed questionnaires at 16-18 weeks' gestation and their pregravid BMI was recorded. Final weight before delivery was measured and used to calculate GWG. FINDINGS: the findings revealed that primiparous women had significantly higher feelings of attractiveness (a facet of body attitude; p=0.01) than multiparous women. Hierarchical regressions revealed that in the overall sample, increased GWG was associated significantly with lower pre-pregnancy BMI (standardised coefficient β=-0.39, p<0.001), higher anxiety symptoms (β=0.25, p=0.004), and reduced self-efficacy to eat a healthy diet (β=-0.20, p=0.02). Although higher GWG was predicted significantly by decreased feelings of strength and fitness for primiparous women (β=-0.25, p=0.04) and higher anxiety was related significantly to greater GWG for multiparous women (β=0.43, p<0.001), statistical comparison of the model across the two groups suggested the magnitude of these effects did not differ across groups (p>0.05). CONCLUSIONS/IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: the findings suggest that psychosocial screening and interventions by healthcare professionals may help to identify women who are at risk of excessive GWG, and there may be specific psychosocial factors that are more relevant for each parity group.

Nutrição da gestante portadora de anemia falciforme, complicações maternas e resultados perinatais

O prognóstico da gestação é influenciado pelo estado nutricional materno. Sabe-se que, desde a infância, as pessoas portadoras da doença falciforme apresentam crescimento deficiente. Pouco se conhece sobre a evolução do estado nutricional materno na anemia falciforme. O objetivo foi analisar o estado nutricional de gestantes portadoras de anemia falciforme, avaliando o ganho de peso, o consumo dietético materno e os resultados adversos maternos e perinatais. Métodos: Foram avaliadas 26 gestantes portadoras de anemia falciforme SS e 23 SC, a partir do início do pré-natal especializado até o puerpério. Como grupo controle foram utilizadas 63 gestantes, sem comorbidades. O estado nutricional das gestantes foi avaliado de acordo com índice de massa corporal, pré-gestacional e ao final da gravidez, bem como analisado o ganho de peso materno. O consumo dietético foi analisado utilizando-se questionário de frequência alimentar, em cada trimestre, caracterizando-se o valor energético total e a ingestão de macronutrientes e micronutrientes. As complicações maternas e perinatais foram investigadas. O nível de significância foi 0,05 (alfa=5%). Resultados: O IMC pré-gestacional foi significativamente menor no grupo SS (mediana 20,3 kg/m2) quando comparado com os grupos SC (22,7 kg/m2, p < 0,05) e controle (23,2 kg/m2, p < 0,05). O baixo peso pré-gestacional (IMC < 18,5 kg/m2) foi significativamente mais frequente no grupo SS (15,4%) quando comparado aos grupos SC (4,4%) e controle (1,6%, p=0,009). Ao final da gestação, o grupo SS apresentou menor IMC (mediana 23,1 kg/m2) quando comparado com o grupo SC (26,1 kg/m2, p < 0,05) e controle (28,5 kg/m2, p < 0,05). O ganho ponderal na gestação foi menor no grupo SS (mediana 8,0 kg) quando comparado com o grupo SC (11,9 kg, p < 0,05) e Controle (13,7 kg, p < 0,05). Na análise do consumo dietético no 2º trimestre, constatou-se que os grupos SS e SC apresentaram menor consumo de proteínas (medianas, 73 g/d e 69 g/d) quando comparados aos controles (96 g/d, p < 0,05); e o consumo de cálcio foi menor no grupo SS comparado ao controle (mediana, 410 vs. 748 g/d, p<0,05). No 3º trimestre, houve menor consumo de proteínas pelo grupo SS quando comparado com os controles (mediana, 68 g/d vs. 93 g/d, p < 0,05); o consumo de vitamina A foi menor no grupo SS quando comparado aos controles (mediana, 447 vs. 940 mcg/d, p < 0,05); o consumo de vitamina E foi menor no grupo SS (mediana, 6 mg/d) quando comparado aos grupos SC (10 mg/d) e controle (7 mg/d, p < 0,05). As complicações maternas mais frequentes foram: crise álgica, 58% no grupo SS e 44% no SC (p=NS); infecção urinária, 31% no SS e 17% no SC (p=NS); e infecção pulmonar, 35% no SS e 9% no SC (p=NS). Houve diferença significativa no diagnóstico de sofrimento fetal: SS (36%), SC (14%) e controle (13%, p=0,032). Resultados perinatais adversos foram mais frequentes nos grupos SS e SC quando comparados aos controles. Conclusões: O estado nutricional das gestantes portadoras de doença falciforme SS caracterizou-se pela desnutrição materna, com baixo ganho ponderal na gestação. O consumo dietético de macronutrientes demonstrou ingestão inadequada de proteínas nos 2º e 3º trimestres. As complicações maternas e resultados perinatais adversos foram eventos frequentes nas gestantes portadoras de doença falciforme

Classification tree analysis of postal questionnaire data to identify risk of excessive gestational weight gain

OBJECTIVE: overweight/obese weight status during pregnancy increases risk of a range of adverse health outcomes for mother and child. Whereas identification of those who are overweight/obese pre-pregnancy and in early pregnancy is straightforward, prediction of who will experience excessive gestational weight gain (EGWG), and thus be at greater risk of becoming overweight or obese during pregnancy is more challenging. The present study sought to better identify those at risk of EGWG by exploring pre-pregnancy BMI as well as a range of psychosocial risk factors identified as risk factors in prior research. METHODS: 225 pregnant women completed self-reported via postal survey measures of height, weight, and psychosocial variables at 16-18 weeks gestation, and reported their weight again at 32-34 weeks to calculate GWG. Classification and regression tree analysis (CART) was used to find subgroups in the data with increased risk of EGWG based on their pre-pregnancy BMI and psychosocial risk factor scores at Time 1. FINDINGS: CART confirmed that self-reported BMI status was a strong predictor of EGWG risk for women who were overweight/obese pre-pregnancy. Normal weight women with low motivation to maintain a healthy diet and who reported lower levels of partner support were also at considerable risk of EGWG. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: present findings offer support for inclusion of psychosocial measures (in addition to BMI) in early antenatal visits to detect risk of EGWG. However, these findings also underscore the need for further consideration of effect modifiers that place women at increased or decreased risk of EGWG. Proposed additional constructs are discussed to direct further theory-driven research.

Relationships between maternal overweight prior to pregnancy, feeding mode and infant feeding beliefs and practices

Aim To examine whether pre-pregnancy weight status was associated with maternal feeding beliefs and practices in the early post-partum period. Methods Secondary analysis of longitudinal data from Australian mothers. Participants (N=486) were divided into two weight status groups based on self-reported pre-pregnancy weight and measured height: healthy weight (BMI <25kg/m2; n=321) and overweight (BMI>25kg/m2; n=165). Feeding beliefs and practices were self-reported via an established questionnaire that assessed concerns about infant overeating and undereating, awareness of infant cues, feeding to a schedule, and using food to calm. Results Infants of overweight mothers were more likely to have been given solid foods in the previous 24hrs (29% vs 20%) and fewer were fully breastfed (50% vs 64%). Multivariable regression analyses (adjusted for maternal education, parity, average infant weekly weight gain, feeding mode and introduction of solids) revealed pre-pregnancy weight status was not associated with using food to calm, concern about undereating, awareness of infant cues or feeding to a schedule. However feeding mode was associated with feeding beliefs and practices. Conclusions Although no evidence for a relationship between maternal weight status and early maternal feeding beliefs and practices was observed, differences in feeding mode and early introduction of solids was observed. The emergence of a relationship between feeding practices and maternal weight status may occur when the children are older, solid feeding is established and they become more independent in feeding.

The challenges and future considerations regarding pregnancy-related outcomes in women with pre-existing diabetes

Ineffective management of blood glucose levels during preconception and pregnancy has been associated with severe maternal and fetal complications in women with pre-existing diabetes. Studies have demonstrated that preconception counseling and pre-pregnancy care can dramatically reduce these risks. However, pregnancy-related outcomes in women with diabetes continue to be less than ideal.

This review highlights and discusses a variety of patient, provider, and organizational factors that can contribute to these suboptimal outcomes. Based on the findings of studies reviewed and authors’ clinical and research experiences, recommendations have been proposed focusing on various aspects of care provided, including improved accessibility to effective preconception and pregnancy-related care and better organized clinic consultations that are sensitive to women’s diabetes and pregnancy needs.

Mild gestational hyperglycaemia as a risk factor for metabolic syndrome in pregnancy and adverse perinatal outcomes

Objective The aims of this study were to evaluate the prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MS) in a cohort of pregnant women with a wide range of glucose tolerance, pre-pregnancy risk factors for MS during pregnancy and the effects of MS in the occurrence of adverse perinatal outcomes.Research Design and Methods One hundred and thirty six women with positive screening for gestational diabetes (GDM) were classified by two diagnostic methods: glycaemic profile and 100 g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) as normoglycaemic, mild gestational hyperglycaemic, GDM, and overt GDM. Markers of insulin resistance were measured between 24-28 and 36th week of gestation, and 6 weeks after delivery.Results The prevalence of MS was 0; 20.0; 23.5 and 36.4% in normoglycaemic, mild hyperglycaemic, GDM and overt GDM groups, respectively. Previous history of GDM with or without insulin use, body mass index (BMI) >= 25, hypertension, family history of diabetes in first-degree relatives, non-Caucasian ethnicity, history of prematurity and polyhydramnios were statistically significant pre-pregnancy predictors for MS in the index pregnancy, that by its turn increased the occurrence of adverse perinatal outcomes (p = 0.01).Conclusions The prevalence of MS increases with the worsening of glucose tolerance and is an independent predictor of adverse perinatal outcomes; impaired glycaemic profile identifies pregnancies with important metabolic abnormalities that are linked to the occurrence of adverse perinatal outcomes even in the presence of a normal OGTT, in patients that are not currently classified as having GDM. Copyright (C) 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.